Across
- 3. Spanish conquerors whose violence and exploitation prompted the crown to establish more formal colonial government.
- 6. Image of Spain as an exceptionally cruel and exploitative colonial power.
- 8. Spanish-born colonists who stood at the top of Spanish America's social hierarchy.
- 9. Status granted to some enslaved people in New Netherland that allowed limited landholding and family independence while obligations to the company remained.
- 10. Governor of New Netherland who resisted demands for greater public religious toleration.
- 15. People descended from marriages between Indigenous women and French traders or officials.
- 17. Commercial activity central to New France and its alliances with Indigenous trading partners.
- 18. People of European ancestry who were born in the Spanish colonies rather than Spain.
- 20. Capital of Spanish America built on the ruins of Tenochtitlán.
- 23. Business structure that allowed investors to pool money and share the risks of overseas ventures.
- 25. Colonial labour system that gave settlers authority over Indigenous lands and the right to demand forced labour.
- 28. Royal officials who governed major regions of Spanish America on behalf of the king.
- 30. Commercial company that controlled Dutch trade and settlement in New Netherland.
Down
- 1. Sea route to Asia that early French and Dutch explorers hoped to discover through North America.
- 2. Explorer employed by the Dutch who sailed into New York Harbor while searching for a route to Asia.
- 4. Main Dutch settlement on Manhattan Island that later became New York City.
- 5. Labour system that replaced encomienda and required Indigenous communities to provide workers for a fixed period.
- 7. Large Spanish-controlled farms that relied heavily on Indigenous labour.
- 11. Dutch colony established in the region that included present-day New York.
- 12. French explorer who founded Quebec in 1608 and helped establish alliances with Indigenous peoples.
- 13. 1657 petition protesting restrictions on Quakers and later remembered as an important document in the history of religious liberty.
- 14. Dominican priest who condemned Spanish abuses of Indigenous peoples and argued for their liberty.
- 16. People of mixed Spanish and Indigenous ancestry who became an important part of colonial society.
- 19. Institution in Spain that oversaw colonial administration in the Americas.
- 21. Religion Spanish authorities and missionaries sought to spread throughout their American empire.
- 22. Religious figure who became a powerful symbol of the blending of Spanish and Indigenous cultures.
- 24. Region where French settlers and Indigenous peoples interacted for many years with neither side exercising complete control.
- 26. Reforms issued in 1542 that attempted to end the enslavement of Indigenous peoples.
- 27. French colonial territory stretching along major waterways including the St. Lawrence and Mississippi.
- 29. Catholic missionary order that sought to convert Indigenous peoples in New France.