Across
- 2. With 3 levels: Level 1 – Pre-conventional Morality: The influence of rewards and punishments, Level 2 – Conventional Morality: The influence of social groups and others, Level 3 – Post-conventional Morality: The influence of higher values and beliefs AND 6 stages: Stage 1: Punishment-avoidance and obedience, Stage 2: Exchange of favours, Stage 3: Good boy/girl, Stage 4: Law and Order, Stage 5: Social Contract, Stage 6: The Universal Ethical Principle Orientation.
- 6. Emphasised the rationality of humans. From this perspective, crime was a choice. Under these approaches, a system of punishments is necessary to deter individuals from committing criminal acts (because they are a result of free will). This is the basis of much of our current criminal justice system:
- 7. Cognitive theories in psychology focus on the way individuals think and process information such as kohlberg's moral development.
- 9. Many individuals attribute crime to personality defects, typically in the form of theories that focus on the criminal's basic antisocial or psychopathic nature.
- 11. propose criminal behaviour is due to factors related to biological factors for example genetic or brain injury. This perspective searches for biological influences that potentially predispose people to engage in criminal behaviour. Genetic vulnerabilities, Low levels of MAO-A, brain injury.
- 15. Psychopathy provides a personality theory for explaining crime. Psychopathy is characterised by being aggressive, antisocial, cold, creative, egocentric, impersonal, impulsive, tough-minded, and lacking empathy. According to this theory, traits such as these may increase the likelihood of crime. Psychopathy has been well established as a risk factor for offending and violent offending.
- 16. Psychological explanations of crime emphasise the individual differences in the way people think or feel about their behaviour. Kohlberg's Moral Development, social learning theory, personality theories such as psychopathy.
- 17. Behavioural theories emphasise the role of learning experiences in human behaviour. The hallmark of the behavioural approach to psychology is the notion that people alter or change their behaviour according to the reactions this behaviour elicits in other people (Bandura, 1978).
- 18. Subcultural theories argue that conflict between the norms of different groups explains criminal behaviour.
Down
- 1. Positivists sought to understand crime through the scientific method and the analysis of empirical data. As the positivist perspective argues that crime is the result of factors that offenders cannot control (e.g. biology/psychology) the view on punishment also differed. Here, it is argued that the treatment of individuals is more important in deterring crime than creating more laws or capital punishment
- 3. According to the social learning theory, people learn how to behave by observing the actions of others, and this can be described as modelling or vicarious/observational learning. So according to this theory, observational learning depends on: 1. Attention to the important features of modelled behaviour, 2. Retention of those features in memory to guide later performance, 3. Reproduction of observed behaviours, and 4. Reinforcement of performed behaviours, which determines whether they will be performed again.
- 4. The influence of heredity appears to be higher for aggressive types of antisocial behaviour (e.g., assaults, robberies, sexual offences) than for non-aggressive crimes (e.g., drug-taking, shoplifting, and truancy) (Eley, 1997).
- 5. Criminal psychology is the study of the thoughts and behavior of criminals. It answers the question: why do criminals do what they do?
- 8. Agnew's General Strain Theory argues that when people are treated badly or not how they wanted to be treated, this can cause "strain". In turn, strain can lead to negative emotional states (e.g. upset, depressed, disappointed, angry, fearful or distressed). These negative emotional states create a motivation to remove the strain or fix the current situation, like a coping strategy. However, the response to strain can often be maladaptive and take the form of deviant or criminal behaviours. General Strain Theory proposes that there can be two types of strain: Objective: Strains we would all find difficult, e.g. a lack of food, lack of housing. Subjective: Strains that are more specific to the individual person or that might be important for some and not for others, e.g. not getting the job you hoped for.
- 10. Here, the guilt or innocence of an individual was usually determined by potentially life-threatening or painful approaches (e.g. throwing someone into the river after their arms and legs had been bound) (Scott, 2019).
- 12. A term used to describe the situation in which practitioners (including forensic psychologists) are expected to also be active researchers.
- 13. Strictly, psychology applied to courts of law but generally used to refer to the forms of psychology used within the criminal justice system.
- 14. According to sociological theories of crime, crime results from social or cultural forces that are external to any specific individual, exist before any criminal act and emerge from social class, political, ecological, or physical structures affecting large groups of people.