INTA 654

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Across
  1. 2. revolutionary period of history involving the transition from foraging to farming. And change in the ways and means of human warfare. (LeBlanc p. 129)
  2. 7. Earliest proto-human species for which there is archaeological evidence of warfighting, including stone age pebbles with chipped edges for cutting, axe-heads for dismembering, and spear points for throwing against both animals and humans. (Keegan p. 116)
  3. 9. human practice cited by archaeologists and Historians as intended to control population but which inevitably has failed to prevent warfare as the more effective means to keep the numbers of people within the carrying capacity of the habitat. (LeBlanc p. 48, Keegan, 25, 97, 104)
  4. 11. primitive peoples of New Guinea whose forms of warfare include ritualized duels that nonetheless involved pitched battles of 200-2000 warriors and resulted in the redistribution of land from the weak to the strong (Keegan pp 99-102)
  5. 12. according to anthropologist Harry Turney-High, the lineal descendant of the flint warhead of primitive peoples, and a weapon system which had been responsible for the destruction of more human life than any other artefact in history (Keegan, p. 91)
  6. 13. North American Indian peoples who often had to fight off invading bands of Eskimo warriors. (LeBlanc p. 117)
  7. 18. Anthropologist’s term for the social organization of humans in the million-plus years that humans lived without farming. (LeBlanc p. xiv)
  8. 20. method employed by the Yanomamo to to hack out temporary gardens, grow native crops such as plantains, and move on to make new clearings when soil fertility falls. (Keegan p. 94)
  9. 21. savage posited by LeBlanc as the creation of Jean-Jacques Rosseau and other enlightment philosophers describing humans in their most natural state in which for most of human history lived in harmony with the environment in a world without war. (LeBlanc p. xi, 12-13)
  10. 23. Ancient Greek Temple resting on a site that had been first built as a defensive walled fortress (LeBlanc p. 5)
  11. 24. type of duel between men in neighboring Yanomamo villages in response to accusations of cowardice or in response to excessive demands for trade goods to demonstrate sovereignty over its village and to deter stealing or seducing of wives (Keegan p. 95)
  12. 27. Thorvaldsson, “The Red,” who founded the first settlement in Greenland after his people had deforested Iceland’s forests and whose people rapidly outstripped the islands resources. (LeBlanc p. 33)
  13. 28. Form of rule among peoples typically characterizing Chiefdoms and States. (Keegan p 103)
  14. 31. Site of the earliest recorded battle, about 2700 BC, involving a long campaign led by Sumerian ruler Gilgamesh to seize cedar from a rival land for the purpose of constructing fortifications to defend from invading forces. (Keegan p. 133)
  15. 32. primate species related and similar to chimpanzees, with equal intelligence but who do not attack others f their own species and do not try to take over the territory of rival groups. (LeBlanc p. 84)
  16. 33. Form of rule among peoples typically characterizing Bands,/Foragers and Tribes. (Keegan p. 103/LeBlanc p. 102)
  17. 35. Form of trophy-taking in warfare practiced by ancient peoples such as the 48 heads found in the 1500 year-old battle site in Cerro Carapo Peru. (LeBlanc p. 59)
  18. 37. Actual mechanism that maintained population in balance with ecological resources available in the New Guinea Highlands among primitive peoples even as late as the 20th century. (LeBlanc p. 33)
  19. 39. Historical city fortified in ways not much improved upon ever since, and for which archaeological evidence confirms was the site of the first recorded battle in history. (Keegan, p. 141, Hemmingway, p. 898)
  20. 40. A time of global climate change between about AD 900 and 1200, in which the world was wet and warm; farming grew rapidly and population soon outpaced the carrying capacity of the land, provoking outbreaks of war and resulting in creation of large defensive fortified villages. (LeBlanc p. 149)
  21. 44. Sumerian ruler of Akkad who incorporated extensive use of bronze weapons over the course of waging 34 years, during his 56-year rule. (Keegan, pp. 134-135.)
  22. 45. most common and obvious indicator of warfare observed by archaeologists (LeBlanc p. 59)
  23. 50. Proto-human species that emerged to compete with Neandertal and who engaged in warfighting as evidenced by archaeological finds of cave art involving “the killed man motif.” (LeBlanc p. 124.)
  24. 54. Mesopotamian peoples who inhabited the lower alluvial plain of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers who experienced little or no warfare amongst themselves until about 3000 BC, but for whom warfare with outsiders became endemic by about 2300 BC. (Keegan, p. 128,133-134.
  25. 55. large herd animals of the American Great Plains who were not hunted to extinction but in fact were environmentally displaced by the rapid spread of cultivated fields of grain, robbing the buffalo of the carrying capacity of their habitat. (LeBlanc p. 19)
  26. 56. Regularly occurring form of warfare among forager, band and tribal societies whose population exceeded the carrying capacity of their area of habitation. (LeBlanc 65-69, 127, 148)
  27. 58. study of behavior of primates by spending time living with them, as in the case of pioneering primatologist Jane Goodall, which discovered that chimps engage in deliberate and methodical attacks with some frequency not aberrant. (LeBlanc, p. 77-78)
  28. 60. foraging proto-human species that left archaeological evidence in modern-day Europe indicating they made and used tools and fire, but did not leave behind art. (LeBlanc p. 80)
  29. 62. valley in New Mexico with archaeological evidence of strategic defensive positions high on hilltops over looking villages on the valley floor, indicative of prehistoric warfare involving massacres, scalping trophy head-taking and significant loss of life and territory. (LeBlanc p.55)
  30. 63. Common way of ancient warfare, evidenced archaeological discovery of Mesopotamian glyphs that signify “conquest” with a temple on fire. (LeBlanc p. 62)
  31. 64. sling-hurled weapons found in many archaeological sites cached behind defensive walls for rapid defensive response to attacks. (LeBlanc pp. 62-63)
  32. 66. Anthropologist’s term for a larger group of people who share belief in common ancestry but are principally united by common language and culture, but who do not necessarily accept headship of any other member. (Keegan p. 103, LeBlanc p. xiv)
  33. 67. What humans will do before they will starve, according to a prominent archaeologist. (LeBlanc p. 149)
  34. 68. Time to initiate raid preferred by Eskimo attackers, sometimes after spending several days on a slow and stealthy approach march, to annihilate opponents (LeBlanc p. 67)
  35. 69. cave found in modern-day Iraq where archaeologists found a skeleton of about 40,000-50,000 years ago of a Neandertal who had suffered from a stone blade between the ribs and headwounds. (LeBlanc p. 96)
  36. 70. built at the turn of the 20th century to control flooding along the Nile River, resulting in uncovering numerous archaeological sites with substantial evidence of intense human warfare from 10,000 to 2,000 years ago. (LeBlanc p. 125)
Down
  1. 1. National affiliation of the “uncircumcised” adversary, Goliath, of David, in the Biblical account. (Hemmingway, p.235)
  2. 3. William, an 1803 escapee from Australian prison who lived for 32 years among Aborigines and recorded his observations and their accounts of forager warfare, including a large-scale attack by over 300 tribesmen. (LeBlanc, pp. 114-115)
  3. 4. Konrad, Nobel prize winning scientist who argued from his observation of animals in the wild and in controlled environments that aggression was a natural ‘drive’, deriving its energy from the organism itself. (Keegan, p. 85)
  4. 5. Common name for species domesticated by humans to provide help with hunting and to provide early warning of approaching intruders. (LeBlanc., p. 94)
  5. 6. The study of surviving primitive peoples in their habitat (Keegan, p. 85, LeBlanc, p. 10)
  6. 8. Ice Age of somewhere between 1200-1600 AD, which, in conjunction with a great famine in 1317 created environmental conditions in which there was not sufficient food for most human populations in the habitat where they had settled, food shortages leading to increased incidence of warfare. (LeBlanc, p 3).
  7. 10. Poem type intended to record glorious deed s of the past, encourage one’s own warriors and frighten the enemy. (van Creveld p. 3)
  8. 14. Historian who argues that war is not the continuation of policy by other means, it embraces much more than politics, it is always an expression of culture, often a determinant of cultural forms, and in some societies the culture itself. (Keegan, p. 3, 12)
  9. 15. Theory advanced by such anthropologists as Ruth Benedict and Margaret Meade in which humans are posited to be free to choose among a wide variety of cultural forms and adopt that which is best suited to their situation, and in which humans may live in perfect harmony without violence. (Keegan, p. 87)
  10. 16. 1964 declaration by Margaret Mead as to the nature of war. (Keegan p. 92)
  11. 17. Pacific island whose population was controlled by forcing some members to depart on outrigger canoes, usually never to arrive at an alternative habitat. (LeBlanc p.53)
  12. 19. Type of warfare fought by Aztecs, Maori, Maring and Yanomamo, involving close range engagements with weapons of little penetrating power and without dense bodily protection that would be needed to stop puncture wounds to the head or trunk. Battles fought for revenge and expiation, characterized by ceremony and ritual for the purpose of satisfaction of a mythic necessity or divine demands. (Keegan p. 114)
  13. 22. confrontations resulting from adultery or suspicion of adultery in which the men of one village challenge another to a contest involving clubs with sharpened ends and usually escalates to raiding by groups of men against those of the offending neighboring village. (Keegan pp. 95-96)
  14. 25. Mesolithic site in Bavaria with archaeological remains of a massacre with 38 killed and evidence of bludgeoning, decapitation and scalping. (LeBlanc p. 125)
  15. 26. Theory on the origin of war in the human species in which aggression is a function of the lower brain amenable to control by the higher brain. (Keegan p. 81-83)
  16. 27. valley in New Mexico that once was the land of Native Americans, from whom are descended the Zuni, Hopi, Acoma, and Anasazi peoples, who fought over land and food as climate change brought on environmental deterioration and who built elaborate fortifications for defense on high mesas surrounded by 2-story unbroken outer walls, with high towers (LeBlanc p. 1)
  17. 29. approximate number of hilltop forts built by Maoris in New Zealand (LeBlanc p. 61)
  18. 30. form of analytic bias that blinded many archaeologists from seeing the evidence of human warfare in ancient times. (LeBlanc, p. 3)
  19. 34. Archaelologist who argues that war in the inevitable outcome of our ecological-demographic propensities. (LeBlanc, p. xii)
  20. 36. Anthropologist’s term for a small group whose members know, or at least believe, they are related to each other by blood. Tend to live in small, reclusive groups of hunter/gatherers (Keegan p. 103)
  21. 38. Ancient peoples of South America whose cultural warfare included ritual torture of captives (Keegan, pp. 111-112)
  22. 41. Lionel, modern day anthropologist and consultant to the US Department of Defense who argues that war is a form of human social interaction that is biological in origin. (Keegan, pp. 85-86)
  23. 42. Tribal warriors of Brazil and Venezuela whose purpose for warfare whose solved their problem of population growth beyond the carrying capacity of their habitat by attacking the inhabitants of neighboring lands. (LeBlanc, pp. 33, 43-44, 152-153.)
  24. 43. primatologist who recorded accounts of chimpanzee conflict involving stealthy, surprise attacks by large groups involving deployment of overwhelming numbers of chimps, determined to kill and not just scare or intimidate the opponent. (LeBlanc p. 78)
  25. 46. A theoretical type of foraging in which rational animals, including humans, hunt or collect only those species that give the greatest return for the time and effort available. (LeBlanc p. 29)
  26. 47. site in Chihuahua, Mexico of a large massacre from the 1300s in which an entire town was sacked and hundreds killed. (LeBlanc p. 148)
  27. 48. Mummified Iceman who had died of human conflict in chalcolithic times, whose remains were discovered by Alpine hikers in 1991 in the Alps and was found to have an arrowhead in his chest. (LeBlanc p. 4)
  28. 49. caves in France, like similar ones in Spain, containing the earliest known human artworks depicting acts of war (LeBlanc p. 5)
  29. 50. Very large grouping of people whose members rank themselves by distinctive origins from founders of divine ancestry (Keegan p. 103, LeBlanc p. xiv)
  30. 51. Cannibalistic warriors who inhabited modern day New Zealand who went to war to redistribute land from the weaker to the stronger as population growth outstripped the resources available on the island ecosystem, evidenced by the archaeological remains of over 1000 defensive fortifications built by the islanders. (LeBlanc, pp. 52, 61, 136)
  31. 52. Ethnologist whose study of the Yanomamo concludes that their warfare is cultural, rooted in selection for reproductive success. (Keegan pp. 96-97)
  32. 53. primate studied for indications of human behavior in that they live in social groups of about 30, who forage and hunt in ways similar to humans and who fight their own species by means of deliberate raids, surprise attacks and prevail by means of larger numbers and attrition over time that results in the annihilation of males of rival groups. (LeBlanc p. 81)
  33. 54. Cave discovered in Israel with skeletal human remains showing evidence of war wounds among foragers, showing immobilization from arrows and spears to the legs and torso, followed by dispatch through blows to the head.
  34. 55. tool employed by Australian aboriginal peoples for hunting and fighting. Some models were developed exclusively for warfighting. (LeBlanc p. 120)
  35. 57. Peoples who fabricated body armor from sections of bone sewn together like venetian blinds (LeBlanc, p. 63, 70)
  36. 59. Aboriginal peoples in the vicinity of Arnhem Land on Australia’s Northern Coats who lost 25% of their population in war in campaigns involving total envelopment at night, pitched open battles, and deception operations. (LeBlanc p. 123)
  37. 61. strategy applied by chimpanzees in defeating rival social groups (LeBlanc p. 83)
  38. 65. Often dug between Eskimo dwellings so that residents could escape surprise raids by invaders. (LeBlanc p. 117)
  39. 71. Very large grouping of people whose members are kept together by legitimized legal codes (Keegan p. 103, LeBlanc p. xiv)